pth - GNU Portable Threads GNU Pth 1.2.3 (04-Feb-2000) pth_init, pth_kill, pth_ctrl, pth_version. pth_attr_of, pth_attr_new, pth_attr_init, pth_attr_set, pth_attr_get, pth_attr_destroy. pth_spawn, pth_once, pth_self, pth_yield, pth_nap, pth_wait, pth_cancel, pth_abort, pth_raise, pth_join, pth_exit. pth_fdmode, pth_time, pth_timeout, pth_sfiodisc, pth_cancel_point, pth_cancel_state. pth_event, pth_event_typeof, pth_event_extract, pth_event_concat, pth_event_isolate, pth_event_walk, pth_event_occurred, pth_event_free. pth_key_create, pth_key_delete, pth_key_setdata, pth_key_getdata. pth_msgport_create, pth_msgport_destroy, pth_msgport_find, pth_msgport_pending, pth_msgport_put, pth_msgport_get, pth_msgport_reply. pth_cleanup_push, pth_cleanup_pop. pth_atfork_push, pth_atfork_pop, pth_fork. pth_mutex_init, pth_mutex_acquire, pth_mutex_release, pth_rwlock_init, pth_rwlock_acquire, pth_rwlock_release, pth_cond_init, pth_cond_await, pth_cond_notify, pth_barrier_init, pth_barrier_reach. pth_sigwait_ev, pth_accept_ev, pth_connect_ev, pth_select_ev, pth_poll_ev, pth_read_ev, pth_readv_ev, pth_write_ev, pth_writev_ev. pth_usleep, pth_sleep, pth_waitpid, pth_sigmask, pth_sigwait, pth_accept, pth_connect, pth_select, pth_poll, pth_read, pth_readv, pth_write, pth_writev, pth_pread, pth_pwrite. Pth is a very portable POSIX/ANSI-C based library for Unix platforms which provides non-preemptive priority-based scheduling for multiple threads of execution (aka `multithreading') inside event-driven applications. All threads runs in the same address space of the application process, but each thread has its own individual program-counter, run-time stack, signal mask and errno variable. The thread scheduling itself is done in a cooperative way, i.e., the threads are managed and dispatched by a priority- and event-driven non-preemptive scheduler. The intention is, that this way both better portability and run-time performance is achieved than with preemptive scheduling. The event facility allows threads to wait until various types of internal and external events occur, including pending I/O on file descriptors, asynchronous signals, elapsed timers, pending I/O on message ports, thread and process termination, and even results of customized callback functions. Additionally Pth provides an optional emulation API for POSIX.1c threads ("pthreads") which can be used for backward compatibility to existing multithreaded applications.

Threading Background
When programming event driven applications, usually servers, lots of regular jobs and one-shot requests have to processed in parallel. To achieve this in an efficient way on uniprocessor machines the idea of multitasking is implemented by the operating system which can be used by the applications to spawn multiple instances of itself. On Unix the kernel classically implements multitasking in a preemptive and priority-based way through heavy-weight processes spawned with fork(2). These processes do usually not share a common address space. Instead they are clearly separated from each other and were created by direct cloning a process address space (although modern kernels use memory segment mapping and copy-on-write semantics to avoid unnecessary copying of memory). The drawbacks are obvious: Sharing data between the processes is complicated and can usually only solved in an efficient way through shared memory (but which itself is not very portable). Synchronization is complicated because of the preemptive nature of the Unix scheduler (one has to use atomic locks, etc). The machine resources can be exhausted very quickly when the server application has to serve too much longer running requests (heavy-weight processes cost memory). Additionally when for each request a sub-process is spawned to handle it, the server performance and responsiveness is horrible (heavy-weight processes cost time to spawn). And finally the server application doesn't scale very well with the load because of these resource problems. Lot's of tricks are usually done in practice to overcome these problems (ranging from pre-forked sub-process pools to semi-serialized processing, etc). One the most elegant ways to solve these resource and data sharing problems is to have multiple light-weight threads of execution inside a single (heavy-weight) process, i.e., to use multithreading. Those threads usually improve responsiveness and performance of the application, often improve and simplify the internal program structure and especially require less system resources. Threads neither are the optimal runtime facility for all types of applications nor can all applications gain from them. But at least event driven server applications usually benefit greatly from using threads.

The World of Threading
Lots of documents exists which describe and define the world of threading. To understand Pth only the basic knowledge about threading is actually required. The following definitions of thread related terms should at least help you in understanding the programming context of threads in order to allow you to use Pth. A process on Unix systems consist of at least the following fundamental ingredients: virtual memory table, program code, program counter, heap memory, stack memory, stack pointer, file descriptors, signal table. On every process switch the kernel saves and restores these ingredients for the individual processes. On the other hand a thread consists only of a private program counter, stack memory, stack pointer and signal table. All other ingredients, especially the virtual memory, it shares with the other threads of the same process. Threads on a Unix platform classically can be implemented either inside kernel space or user space. When threads are implemented by the kernel, the thread context switches are performed by the kernel without notice by the application. When threads are implemented in user space, the thread context switches are performed by an application library without notice by the kernel. Additionally there exist also hybrid threading approaches where typically a user-space library binds one or more user-space threads to one or more kernel-space threads (there usually called light-weight processes / LWP). User space threads are usually more portable and can perform faster and cheaper context switches (for instance via setjmp(3)/longjmp(3)) than kernel based threads. On the other hand, kernel space threads can take advantage of multiprocessor machines and don't have any I/O blocking problems. Kernel-space threads are usually always scheduled in preemptive way side-by-side with the underlaying processes. User-space threads on the other hand use either preemptive or non-preemptive scheduling. In preemptive scheduling the scheduler lets a thread execute until a blocking situation occurres (usually a function call which would block) or the assigned timeslice elapses. Then it detracts control from the thread without a chance for the thread to object. This is usually realized by interrupting the thread through a software signal (like SIGALRM or SIGVTALRM). In non-preemptive scheduling once a thread received control from the scheduler it keeps it until either a blocking situation occurs (again a function call which would block and instead switches to the scheduler) or the thread explicitly yields control back to the scheduler in a cooperative way. Concurrency exists when at least two threads are in progress at the same time. Parallelism arises when at least two threads are executing simultaneously. Real parallelism can be only achieved on multiprocessor machines, of course. But one also usually speaks of parallelism or high concurreny in the context of preemptive thread scheduling and of low concurreny in the context of non-preemptive thread scheduling. Responsiveness of a system can be described by the user visible delay until the system responses to an external request. When this delay is small enough and the user doesn't recognize a noticeable delay, the responsiveness of the system is considered good. When the user recognizes or is even annoyed by the delay, the responsiveness of the system is considered bad. A reentrant function is one that behaves correctly if it is called simultaneously by several threads. Functions that access global state, like memory or files, have inherently reentrant problems, of course. Two classical approaches to solve these problems are caller-supplied states and thread-specific data. Thread-safety is the avoidance of data races, i.e., situations in which data is set to either correct or incorrect value depending upon the (unpredictable) order in which multiple threads access and modify the data. So a function is thread-safe when it behaves logically correct when executed by several threads. As you should recognize, reentrant is a stronger attribute than thread-safe. Additionally there is a related attribute named asynchronous-safe which comes into play in conjunction with signal handlers. This is very related to the problem of reentrant functions. An asynchronous safe function is one that can be called safe and without side-effects from within a signal handler context. Usually very less functions are of this type. The problem is that an application is very restricted in what it can perform from within a signal handler, because only a few POSIX functions are officially declared as and guarrantied to be async-safe.

User-Land Threads
User-land threads can be implemented in various way. The two classical approaches are: Matrix-based explicit dispatching between small units of execution: Here the global procedures of the application are split into small execution units (each has to run maximal a few milliseconds) and those units are implemented by separate program functions. Then a global matrix is created which describes the execution (and perhaps even dependency) order of these functions. The main server procedure then does just dispatching between these units by calling one function after each other controlled by this matrix. The treads are created by more than one jump-trail through this matrix and by switching between these jump-trails controlled by corresponding occurred events. The advantage of this approach is that the performance is really as maximal as possible (because one can fine-tune the threads of execution by adjusting the matrix and the scheduling is done explicitly by the application itself). Additionally this is very portable, because the matrix is just an ordinary data structure and functions are a standard feature of ANSI C. The disadvantage of this approach is that it is complicated to write large applications with this approach, because in those applications one quickly get hundreds(!) of execution units and the control flow inside such an application is very hard to understand (because it is interrupted by function borders and one always has to remember the global dispatching matrix to follow it). Additionally all threads operate on the same execution stack. Although this saves memory it is often nasty because one cannot switch between threads in the middle of a function. The scheduling borders are function borders. Context-based based implicit scheduling between threads of execution: Here the idea is that one programs the application as with fork(2)'ed processes, i.e., one spawns a thread of execution and this runs from the begin to the end without an interrupted control flow. But the control flow can be still interrupted - even in the middle of a function. Actually in a preemptive way similar to what the kernel does for the heavy-weight processes, i.e., every few milliseconds the scheduler switches between the threads of execution. But the thread itself doesn't recognize this and usually (except for synchronization issues) doesn't have to care about this. The advantage of this approach is that it's usually very easy to program, because the control flow and context of a thread directly follows a procedure without forced interrupts through function borders. Additionally the programming is very similar to a fork(2)'ed approach. The disadvantage is that although the general performance is increased, compared to using approaches with heavy-weight processes, it is decreased compared to the matrix-approach above. Because the implicit preemptive scheduling does usually a lot more context switches (every user-land context switch costs some overhead even when it is a lot cheaper than a kernel-level context switch) than the explicit cooperative/non-preemptive scheduling. Finally there is no really portable POSIX/ANSI-C based way to implement user-space preemptive threads. Either the platform already has threads or one has to hope that some semi-portable package exists for it. And even those semi-portable packages have to deal with assembler code and other nasty internals and are not easy to port to forthcoming platforms. So, in short: The matrix-dispatching approach is portable and fast, but nasty to program. The thread scheduling approach is easy to program, but suffers from synchronization and portability problems caused by its preemptive nature.

The Compromise of Pth
But why not combine the good aspects of both discussed approaches while trying to avoid their bad aspects? That's the general intention and goal of Pth. In detail this means that Pth implements the easy to program threads of execution but in a way which doesn't have the portability side-effects of preemptive scheduling. This means that instead a non-preemptive scheduling is used. This sounds and is an interesting approach. Nevertheless one has to keep the implications of non-preemptive thread scheduling in mind when working with Pth. The following list summarizes a few essential points: Pth provides maximum portability, but NOT the fanciest features. The reasons are mainly because it uses a nifty and portable POSIX/ANSI-C approach for thread creation (and this way doesn't require any platform dependent assembler hacks) and schedules the threads in non-preemptive way (which doesn't require unportable facilities like SIGVTALRM). On the other hand this way not all fancy threading features can be implemented. Nevertheless the available facilities are enough to provide a robust and full-featured threading system. Pth increases the responsiveness and concurrency of an event driven application, but NOT the concurrency of number crunching applications. The reason is the non-preemptive scheduling. Number crunching applications usually require preemptive scheduling to achieve concurrency because of their long CPU bursts. For them non-preemptive scheduling (even together with explicit yielding) provides only the old concept of "coroutines". On the other hand, event driven applications benefit greatly from non-preemptive scheduling. They have only short CPU bursts and lots of events to wait on and this way run faster under preemptive scheduling because of no unnecessary context switching occurs as it is the case for preemptive scheduling. That's why Pth is mainly intended for server type applications. Pth requires thread-safe functions, but NOT reentrant functions. This nice fact exists again because of the nature of non-preemptive scheduling, where a function isn't interrupted and this way cannot be reentered before it returned. This is a great portability benefit, because thread-safety can be achieved more easily than reentrance possibility. Especially this means that under Pth more existing third-party libraries can be used without side-effects than its the case for other threading systems. Pth doesn't require any kernel support, but can NOT benefit from multiprocessor machines. This means that Pth runs on mostly all types of Unix kernels, because the kernel does not even recognize the Pth threads (because they are implemented entirely in user-space). On the other hand, it cannot benefit from the existance of multiprocessors, because for this kernel support would be needed. Practice this is no problem because multiprocessor systems are rare and portability is more important than highest concurrency.

The life cycle of a thread
To better understand the Pth API it is reasonable to first understand the life cycle of a thread in the Pth threading system. It can be illustrated with the following graph: NEW | V +---> READY----+ | ^ | | | V WAITING <--+-- RUNNING | V DEAD When a new thread is created, it is moved into the NEW queue of the scheduler. On the next dispatching the scheduler picks it up from there and moves it to the READY queue. This is a queue containing all threads which want to perform a CPU burst. There they are queued in priority order. Per dispatching step, the scheduler always removes the thread with the highest priority only. The assigned queue priority for all remaining threads every time is increased by 1 to prevent thread starvation. The thread which was removed from the READY queue is the new RUNNING thread (there is always just one RUNNING thread, of course). The RUNNING thread is assigned execution control. After this thread yields execution (either explicitly or implicitly by calling a function which would block) there are three possibilities: Either it has terminated, then it is moved to the DEAD queue, or it has events on which it wants to wait, then it is moved into the WAITING queue. Else it is assumed it wants to perform more CPU bursts and enters the READY queue again. Before the next thread is taken out of the READY queue, the WAITING queue is checked for pending events. When one or more events of a thread occured, it is immediately moved to the READY queue, too. The purpose of the NEW queue has to do with the fact that a thread never directly switches to another thread. A thread always yields execution to the scheduler and the scheduler dispatches to the next thread. The purpose of the DEAD queue is to support thread joining. When a thread is marked to be unjoinable, it is directly kicked out of the system after it terminated. But when it is joinable it enters the DEAD queue. There is remains until another thread joins it. In the following the Pth Application Programming Interface (API) is disscussed in detail. With the knowledge given above it should be now easy to understand how to program threads with this API.

Global Library Management
The following functions act on a global library basis. They are used to initialize and shutdown the scheduler and fetch information from it. This initializes the Pth library. It has to be really the first Pth API function call in an application and is mandatory. It's usually done at the begin of the main() function of the application. This implicitly spawns the internal scheduler thread and transforms the single execution unit of the current process into a thread (the "main" thread). This kills the Pth library. It should be the last Pth API function call in an application, but is not really required. It's usually done at the end of the main function of the application. At least it has to be called from within the main thread. It implicitly kills all threads and transforms back the calling thread into the single execution unit of the underlaying process. The usual way to terminate a Pth application is either a simple ``pth_exit(0);'' in the main thread (which waits for all other threads to terminate, kills the threading system and then terminates the process) or a ``pth_kill(); exit(0)'' (which immediately kills the threading system and terminates the process). The pth_kill() return immediately with a return code of FALSE if it is called not from within the main thread. Else kills the treading system and returns TRUE. This is a generalized query/control function for the Pth library. The argument query is a bitmask formed out of one or more PTH_CTRL_XXXX queries. Currently the following queries are supported: This returns the total number of threads currently in existence. This query actually is formed out of the combination of queries for threads in a particular state, i.e., the PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS query is equal to the OR-combination of all the following specialized queries: PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS_NEW for the number of threads in the new queue (threads created via pth_spawn(3) but still not scheduled once), PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS_READY for the number of threads in the ready queue (threads who want to do CPU bursts), PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS_RUNNING for the number of running threads (always just one thread!), PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS_WAITING for the number of threads in the waiting queue (threads waiting for events), PTH_CTRL_GETTHREADS_DEAD for the number of threads in the new queue (terminated threads waiting for a join). This requires a second argument of type ``float *'' (pointer to a floating point variable). It stores a floating point value describing the exponential averaged load of the scheduler in this variable. The load is a function from the number of threads in the ready queue of the schedulers dispatching unit. So a load around 1.0 means there is only one ready thread (the standard situation when the application has no high load). A higher load value means there a more threads ready who want to do CPU bursts. The average load value updates once per second only. The return value for this query is always 0. This requires a second argument of type ``pth_t'' which identifies a thread. It returns the priority (ranging from PTH_PRIO_MIN to PTH_PRIO_MAX) of the given thread. This requires a second argument of type ``pth_t'' which identifies a thread. It returns the name of the given thread, i.e., the return value of pth_ctrl(3) should be casted to a ``char *''. This function returns a hex-value ``0xVRRTLL'' which describes the current Pth library version. V is the version, RR the revisions, LL the level and T the type of the level (alphalevel=0, betalevel=1, patchlevel=2, etc). For instance Pth version 1.0b1 is encoded as 0x100101. The reason for this unusual mapping is that this way the version number is steadily increasing. The same value is also available under compile time as PTH_VERSION.

Thread Attribute Handling
Attribute objects are used in Pth for two things: First stand-alone/unbound attribute objects are used to store attributes for to be spawned threads. Bounded attribute objects are used to modify attributes of already existing threads. The following attribute fields exists in attribute objects: Thread Priority between PTH_PRIO_MIN and PTH_PRIO_MAX. The default is PTH_PRIO_STD. Name of thread (up to 40 characters are stored only), mainly for debugging purposes. The thread detachment type, TRUE indicates a joinable thread, FALSE indicates a detached thread. When a the is detached after termination it is immediately kicked out of the system instead of inserted into the dead queue. The thread cancellation state, i.e., a combination of PTH_CANCEL_ENABLE or PTH_CANCEL_DISABLE and PTH_CANCEL_DEFERRED or PTH_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS. The thread stack size in bytes. Use lower values than 32KB with great care! A pointer to the lower address of a chunk of malloc(3)'ed memory for the stack. The time when the thread was spawned. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The time when the thread was last dispatched. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The total time the thread was running. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The thread start function. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The thread start argument. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The scheduling state of the thread, i.e., either PTH_STATE_NEW, PTH_STATE_READY, PTH_STATE_WAITING, or PTH_STATE_DEAD This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. The event ring the thread is waiting for. This can be queried only when the attribute object is bound to a thread. Whether the attribute object is bound (TRUE) to a thread or not (FALSE). The following API functions exists to handle the attribute objects: This returns a new attribute object bound to thread tid. Any queries on this object directly fetch attributes from tid. And attribute modifications directly change tid. Use such attribute objects to modify existing threads. This returns a new unbound attribute object. An implicit pth_attr_init() is done on it. Any queries on this object just fetch stored attributes from it. And attribute modifications just change the stored attributes. Use such attribute objects to pre-configure attributes for to be spawned threads. This initializes an attribute object attr to the default values: PTH_ATTR_PRIO := PTH_PRIO_STD, PTH_ATTR_NAME := "unknown", PTH_ATTR_JOINABLE := TRUE, PTH_ATTR_CANCELSTATE := PTH_CANCEL_DEFAULT, PTH_ATTR_STACK_SIZE := 32*1024 and PTH_ATTR_STACK_ADDR := NULL. All other PTH_ATTR_* attributes are read-only attributes and don't receive default values in attr, because they exists only for bounded attribute objects. This sets the attribute field field in attr to a value specified as an additional argument on the variable argument list. The following attribute fields exists: This destroys a attribute object attr. After this attr is no longer a valid attribute object.

Thread Control
The following functions control the threading itself and form the main API of the Pth library. This spawns a new thread with the attributes given in attr (or PTH_ATTR_DEFAULT for default attributes - which means that thread priority, joinability and cancel state are inherited from the current thread) with the starting point at routine entry. This entry routine is called as ``pth_exit(entry(arg))'' inside the new thread unit, i.e., entry's return value is fed to an implicit pth_exit(3). So the thread usually can exit by just returning. Nevertheless the thread can also exit explicitly at any time by calling pth_exit(3). But keep in mind that calling the POSIX function exit(3) still terminates the complete process and not just the current thread. There is no Pth-internal limit on the number of threads one can spawn, except the limit implied by the available virtual memory. Pth internally keeps track of thread in dynamic data structures. This is a convenience function which uses a control variable of type pth_once_t to make sure a constructor function func is called only once as ``func(arg)'' in the system. In other words: Only the first call to pth_once(3) by any thread in the system succeeds. The variable referenced via ctrlvar should be declared as ``pth_once_t variable-name = PTH_ONCE_INIT;'' before calling this function. This just returns the unique thread handle of the currently running thread. This handle itself has to be treated as an opaque entity by the application. It's usually used as an argument to other functions who require an argument of type pth_t. This function raises a signal for delivery to thread tid only. When one just raises a signal via raise(3) or kill(2), its delivered to an arbitrary thread which has this signal not blocked. With pth_raise(3) one can send a signal to a thread and its guarranties that only this thread gets the signal delivered. But keep in mind that nevertheless the signals action is still configured process-wide. When sig is 0 plain thread checking is performed, i.e., ``pth_raise(tid, 0)'' returns TRUE when thread tid still exists in the PTH system but doesn't send any signal to it. This explicitly yields back the execution control to the scheduler thread. Usually the execution is implicitly transferred back to the scheduler when a thread waits for an event. But when a thread has to do larger CPU bursts, it can be reasonable to interrupt it explicitly by doing a few pth_yield(3) calls to give other threads a chance to execute, too. This obviously is the cooperating part of Pth. A thread has not to yield execution, of course. But when you want to program a server application with good response times the threads should be cooperative, i.e., when they should split their CPU bursts into smaller units with this call. Usually one specifies tid as NULL to indicate to the scheduler that it can freely decide which thread to dispatch next. But if one wants to indicate to the scheduler that a particular thread should be favored on the next dispatching step, one can specify this thread explicitly. This allows the usage of the old concept of coroutines where a thread/routine switches to a particular cooperating thread. If tid is not NULL and points to a ready thread, it is guarrantied that this thread receives execution control on the next dispatching step. If tid is in a different state (that is, still not ready) this has no effect and is equal to calling this function with tid specified as NULL. The function usually returns TRUE for success and only FALSE (with errno set to EINVAL) if tid specified and invalid or still not ready thread. This functions suspends the execution of the current thread until naptime is elapsed. naptime is of type pth_time_t and this way has theoretically a resolution of one microsecond. In pratice you should neither rely on this nor that the thread is awakened exactly after naptime has elapsed. It's only guarranties that the thread will sleep at least naptime. But because of the non-preemptive nature of Pth it can last longer (when another thread kept the CPU for a long time). Additionally the resolution is dependent of the implementation of timers by the operating system and these usually have only a resolution of 10 microseconds or larger. But usually this isn't important for an application unless it tries to use this facility for real time tasks. This is the link between the scheduler and the event facility (see below for the various pth_event_xxx() functions). It's modelled like select(2), i.e., one gives this function one or more events (in the event ring specified by ev) on which the current thread wants to wait. The scheduler awakes the thread when one ore more of them occurred after tagging them as occured. The ev argument is a pointer to an event ring which isn't changed except for the tagging. pth_wait(3) returns the number of occured events and the application can use pth_event_occurred(3) to test which events occured. This cancels a thread tid. How the cancellation is done depends on the cancellation state of tid which the thread can configure itself. When its state is PTH_CANCEL_DISABLE a cancellation request is just made pending. When it is PTH_CANCEL_ENABLE it depends on the cancellation type what is performed. When its PTH_CANCEL_DEFERRED again the calcellation request is just made pending. But when its PTH_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS the tread is immediately cancelled before pth_cancel(3) returns. The effect of a thread cancellation is equal to implicitly forcing the thread to call ``pth_exit(PTH_CANCELED)'' at one of his cancellation points. In Pth thread enter a cancellation point either explicitly via pth_cancel_point(3) or implicitly by waiting for an event. This is the crual way to cancel a thread tid. When it's already dead and waits to be joined it just joins it (via ``pth_join(tid, NULL)'') and this way kicks it out of the system. Else it forces the thread to be not joinable and to allow asynchronous cancellation and then cancels it via ``pth_cancel(tid)''. This joins the current thread with the thread specified via tid. It first suspends the current thread until the tid thread has terminated. Then it is awakend and stores the value of tid's pth_exit(3) call into value and returns to the caller. A thread can be joined only when it was not spawned with PTH_FLAG_NOJOIN. A thread can only be joined once, i.e., after the pth_join(3) call the thread tid is removed from the system. This terminates the current thread. Whether it's immediately removed from the system or inserted into the dead queue of the scheduler depends on its join type which was specified at spawning time. When it was spawned with PTH_FLAG_NOJOIN it's immediately removed and value is ignored. Else the thread is inserted into the dead queue and value remembered for a pth_join(3) call by another thread.

Utilities
The following functions are utility functions. This switches the non-blocking mode flag on filedescriptor fd. The argument mode can be PTH_FDMODE_BLOCK for switching fd into blocking I/O mode, PTH_FDMODE_NONBLOCK for switching fd into non-blocking I/O mode or PTH_FDMODE_POLL for just polling the current mode. The current mode is returned (either PTH_FDMODE_BLOCK or PTH_FDMODE_NONBLOCK) or PTH_FDMODE_ERROR on error. Keep in mind that since Pth 1.1 there is no longer a requirement to manually switch a filedescriptor into non-blocking mode in order to use it. This is automatically done temporarily inside Pth. Instead when you now switch a filedescriptor explicitly into non-blocking mode, pth_read(3) or pth_write(3) will never block the current thread. This is a constructor for a pth_time_t structure which is a convenient function to avoid temporary structure values. It returns a pth_time_t structure which holds the absolute time value specified by sec and usec. This is a constructor for a pth_time_t structure which is a convenient function to avoid temporary structure values. It returns a pth_time_t structure which holds the absolute time value calculated by adding sec and usec to the current time. This functions is always available, but only reasonably useable when Pth was built with Sfio support (--with-sfio option) and PTH_EXT_SFIO is then defined by pth.h. It is useful for applications which want to use the comprehensive Sfio I/O library with the Pth threading library. Then this function can be used to get an Sfio discipline structure (Sfdisc_t) which can be pushed onto Sfio streams (Sfio_t) in order to let this stream use pth_read(3)/pth_write(2) instead of read(2)/write(2). The benefit is that this way I/O on the Sfio stream does only block the current thread instead of the whole process. The application has to free(3) the Sfdisc_t structure when it is no longer needed. The Sfio package can be found at http://www.research.att.com/sw/tools/sfio/.

Cancellation Management
Pth supports POSIX style thread cancellation via pth_cancel(3) and the following two related functions: This manages the cancellation state of the current thread. When oldstate is not NULL the function stores the old cancellation state under the variable pointed to by oldstate. When newstate is not 0 it sets the new cancellation state. oldstate is created before newstate is set. A state is a combination of PTH_CANCEL_ENABLE or PTH_CANCEL_DISABLE and PTH_CANCEL_DEFERRED or PTH_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS. PTH_CANCEL_ENABLE|PTH_CANCEL_DEFERRED (or PTH_CANCEL_DEFAULT) is the default state where cancellation is possible but only at cancellation points. Use PTH_CANCEL_DISABLE to complete disable cancellation for a thread and PTH_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS for allowing asynchronous cancellations, i.e., cancellations which can happen at any time. This explicitly enter a cancellation point. When the current cancellation state is PTH_CANCEL_DISABLE or no cancellation request is pending, this has no side-effect and returns immediately. Else it calls ``pth_exit(PTH_CANCELED)''.

Event Handling
Pth has a very flexible event facility which is linked into the scheduler through the pth_wait(3) function. The following functions provide the handling of event rings. This creates a new event ring consisting of a single initial event. The type of the generated event is specified by spec. The following types are available: This is a filedescriptor event. One or more of PTH_UNTIL_FD_READABLE, PTH_UNTIL_FD_WRITEABLE or PTH_UNTIL_FD_EXECPTION have to be OR-ed into spec to specify on which state of the filedescriptor you want to wait. The filedescriptor itself has to be given as an additional argument. Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_FD|PTH_UNTIL_FD_READABLE, fd)''. This is a multiple filedescriptor event modeled directly after the select(2) call (actually it is also used to implement pth_select(3) internally). It's a convinient way to wait for a large set of filedescriptors at once and at each filedescriptor for a different type of state. Additionally as a nice side-effect one receives the number of filedescriptors which causes the event to be occurred (using BSD semantics, i.e., when a filedescriptor occurred in two sets it's counted twice). The arguments correspond directly to the select(2) function arguments except that there is no timeout argument (because timeouts already can be handled via PTH_EVENT_TIME events). Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_SELECT, &rc, nfd, rfds, wfds, efds)'' where rc has to be of type ``int *'', nfd has to be of type ``int'' and rfds, wfds and efds have to be of type ``fd_set *'' (see select(2)). The number of occurred filedescriptors are stored in rc. This is a signal set event. The two additional arguments have to be a pointer to a signal set (type ``sigset_t *'') and a pointer to a signal number variable (type ``int *''). This event waits until one of the signals in the signal set occurred. As a result the occurred signal number is stored in the second additional argument. Keep in mind that the Pth scheduler doesn't block signals automatically. So when you want to wait for a signal with this event you've to block it via sigprocmask(2) or it will be delivered without your notice. Example: ``sigemptyset(&set); sigaddset(&set, SIGINT); pth_event(PTH_EVENT_SIG, &set, &sig);''. This is a time point event. The additional argument has to be of type pth_time_t (usually on-the-fly generated via pth_time(3)). This events waits until the specified time point has elapsed. Keep in mind that the value is an absolute time point and not an offset. When you want to wait for a specified amount of time, you've to add the current time to the offset (usually on-the-fly achieved via pth_timeout(3)). Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_TIME, pth_timeout(2,0))''. This is a message port event. The additional argument has to be of type pth_msgport_t. This events waits until one or more messages were received on the specified message port. Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_MSG, mp)''. This is a thread event. The additional argument has to be of type pth_t. One of PTH_UNTIL_TID_NEW, PTH_UNTIL_TID_READY, PTH_UNTIL_TID_WAITING or PTH_UNTIL_TID_DEAD has to be OR-ed into spec to specify on which state of the thread you want to wait. Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_TID|PTH_UNTIL_TID_DEAD, tid)''. This is a process event. Three additional arguments have to be given which correspond to the arguments of the waitpid(2) function: ``pid_t'', ``int *'' and ``int''. This events waits until the process changed to the specified state. Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_PID, pid, &status, 0)''. This is a custom callback function event. Two additional arguments have to be given with the following types: ``int (*)(void *)'' and ``void *''. The first is a function pointer and the second is an argument which is passed to the function. The scheduler calls this function on a regular basis (on his own scheduler stack, so be careful!) and the thread is kept sleeping while the function returns 0. Once it returned not 0 the thread will be awakend. Example: ``pth_event(PTH_EVENT_FUNC, func, arg)''. This returns the type of event ev. It's a combination of the describing PTH_EVENT_XX and PTH_UNTIL_XX value. This is especially useful to know which arguments have to be supplied to the pth_event_extract(3) function. When pth_event(3) is threated like sprintf(3), then this function is sscanf(3), i.e., it is the inverse operation of pth_event(3). This means that it can be used to extract the ingredients of an event. The ingredients are stored into variables which are given as pointers on the variable argument list. Which pointers have to be present depends on the event type and has to be determined by the caller before via pth_event_typeof(3). To make it clear, when you constructed ev via ``ev = pth_event(PTH_EVENT_FD, fd);'' you have to extract it via ``pth_event_extract(ev, &fd)'', etc. For multiple arguments of an event the order of the pointer arguments is the same as for pth_event(3). But always keep in mind that you have to always supply pointers to variables and these variables have to be of the same type as the argument of pth_event(3) required. This concatenates one or more additional event rings to the event ring ev and returns ev. The end of the argument list has to be marked with a NULL argument. Use this function to create real events rings out of the single-event rings created by pth_event(3). This isolates the event ev from possibly appended events in the event ring. When in ev only one event exists, this returns NULL. When remaining events exists, they form a new event ring which is returned. This walks to the next (when direction is PTH_WALK_NEXT) or previews (when direction is PTH_WALK_PREV) event in the event ring ev and returns this new reached event. Additionally PTH_UNTIL_OCCURRED can be OR-ed into direction to walk to the next/previous occurred event in the ring ev. This checks whether the event ev occurred. This is a fast operation because only a tag on ev is checked which was either set or still not set by the scheduler. In other words: This doesn't check the event itself, it just checks the last knowledge of the scheduler. This deallocates the event ev (when mode is PTH_FREE_THIS) or all events appended to the event ring under ev (when mode is PTH_FREE_ALL).

Key-Based Storage
The following functions provide thread-local storage through unique keys similar to the POSIX pthread API. Use this for thread specific global data. This created a new unique key and stores it in key. Additionally func can specify a destructor function which is called on the current threads termination with the key. This explicitly destroys a key key. This stores value under key. This retrieves the value under key.

Message Port Communication
The following functions provide message ports which can be used for efficient and flexible inter-thread communication. This returns a pointer to a new message port with name name. The name can be used by other threads via pth_msgport_find(3) to find the message port in case they do not know directly the pointer to the message port. This destroys a message port mp. Before all pending messages on it are replied to their origin message port. This finds a message port in the system by name and returns the pointer to it. This returns the number of pending messages on message port mp. This puts (or sends) a message m to message port mp. This gets (or receives) the top message from message port mp. Incoming messages are always kept in a queue, so there can be more pending messages, of course. This replies a message m to the message port of the sender.

Thread Cleanups
The following functions provide per-thread cleanup functions. This pushes the routine handler onto the stack of cleanup routines for the current thread. These routines are called in LIFO order when the thread terminates. This pops the top-most routine from the stack of cleanup routines for the current thread. When execute is TRUE the routine is additionally called.

Process Forking
The following functions provide some special support for process forking situations inside the threading environment. This function declares forking handlers to be called before and after pth_fork(3), in the context of the thread that called pth_fork(3). The prepare handler is called before fork(2) processing commences. The parent handler is called after fork(2) processing completes in the parent process. The child handler is called after fork(2) processing completed in the child process. If no handling is desired at one or more of these three points, the corresponding handler can be given as NULL. Each handler is called with arg as the argument. The order of calls to pth_atfork_push(3) is significant. The parent and child handlers are called in the order in which they were established by calls to pth_atfork_push(3), i.e., FIFO. The prepare fork handlers are called in the opposite order, i.e., LIFO. This removes the top-most handlers on the forking handler stack which were established with the last pth_atfork_push(3) call. It returns FALSE when no more handlers couldn't be removed from the stack. This is a variant of fork(2) with the difference that the current thread only is forked into a separate process, i.e., in the parent process nothing changes while in the child process all threads are gone except for the scheduler and the calling thread. When you really want to duplicate all threads in the current process you should use fork(2) directly. But this is usually not reasonable. Additionally this function takes care of forking handlers as established by pth_fork_push(3).

Synchronization
The following functions provide synchronization support via mutual exclusion locks (mutex), read-write locks (rwlock), condition variables (cond) and barriers (barrier). Keep in mind that in a non-preemptive threading system like Pth this might sound unnecessary at the first look, because a thread isn't interrupted by the system. Actually when you have a critical code section which doesn't contain any pth_xxx() functions, you don't need any mutex to protect it, of course. But when your critical code section contains any pth_xxx() function the chance is high that these temporarily switch to the scheduler. And this way other threads can make progress and enter your critical code section, too. This is especially true for critical code sections which implicitly or explicitly use the event mechanism. This dynamically initializes a mutex variable of type ``pth_mutex_t''. Alternatively one can also use static initialization via ``pth_mutex_t mutex = PTH_MUTEX_INIT''. This acquires a mutex mutex. If the mutex is already locked by another thread, the current threads execution is suspended until the mutex is unlocked again or additionally the extra events in ev occurred (when ev is not NULL). Recursive locking is explicity supported, i.e., a thread is allowed to acquire a mutex more than once before its released. But it then also has be released the same number of times until the mutex is again lockable by others. When try is TRUE this function never suspends execution. Instead it returns FALSE with errno set to EBUSY. This decrements the recursion locking count on mutex and when it is zero it releases the mutex mutex. This dynamically initializes a read-write lock variable of type ``pth_rwlock_t''. Alternatively one can also use static initialization via ``pth_rwlock_t rwlock = PTH_RWLOCK_INIT''. This acquires a read-only (when op is PTH_RWLOCK_RD) or a read-write (when op is PTH_RWLOCK_RW) lock rwlock. When the lock is only locked by other threads in read-only mode, the lock succeeds. But when one thread holds a read-write lock, all locking attempts suspend the current thread until this lock is released again. Additionally in ev events can be given to let the locking timeout, etc. When try is TRUE this function never suspends execution. Instead it returns FALSE with errno set to EBUSY. This releases a previously acquired (read-only or read-write) lock. This dynamically initializes a condition variable variable of type ``pth_cond_t''. Alternatively one can also use static initialization via ``pth_cond_t cond = PTH_COND_INIT''. This awaits a condition situation. The caller has to follow the semantics of the POSIX condition variables: mutex has to be acquired before this function is called. The execution of the current thread is then suspended either until the events in ev occurred (when ev is not NULL) or cond was notified by another thread via pth_cond_notify(3). While the thread is waiting, mutex is released. Before it returns mutex is reacquired. This notified one or all threads which are waiting on cond. When broadcast is TRUE all thread are notified, else only a single (unspecified) one. This dynamically initializes a barrier variable of type ``pth_barrier_t''. Alternatively one can also use static initialization via ``pth_barrier_t barrier = PTH_BARRIER_INIT(threadhold)''. This function reaches a barrier barrier. If this is the last thread (as specified by threshold on init of barrier) all threads are awakened. Else the current thread is suspended until the last thread reached the barrier and this way awakes all threads. The function returns (beside FALSE on error) the value TRUE for any thread which neither reached the barrier as the first nor the last thread; PTH_BARRIER_HEADLIGHT for the thread which reached the barrier as the first thread and PTH_BARRIER_TAILLIGHT for the thread which reached the barrier as the last thread.

Generalized POSIX Replacement API
The following functions are generalized replacements functions for the POSIX API, i.e., they are similar to the functions under "Standard POSIX Replacement API" but all have an additional event argument which can be used for timeouts, etc. This is equal to pth_sigwait(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_sigwait(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the signal event on set to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_connect(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_connect(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_accept(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_accept(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_select(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_select(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on rfds, wfds and efds to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_poll(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_poll(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fds to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_read(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_read(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_readv(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_readv(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_write(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_write(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring). This is equal to pth_writev(3) (see below), but has an additional event argument ev. When pth_writev(3) suspends the current threads execution it usually only uses the I/O event on fd to awake. With this function any number of extra events can be used to awake the current thread (remember that ev actually is an event ring).

Standard POSIX Replacement API
The following functions are standard replacements functions for the POSIX API. The difference is mainly that they suspend the current thread only instead of the whole process in case the filedescriptors will block. This is a variant of the 4.3BSD usleep(3) function. It suspends the current threads execution until usec microsecond (= usec * 1/1000000 sec) elapsed. The thread is guarrantied to not awakened before this time, but because of the non-preemptive scheduling nature of Pth, it can be awakened later, of course. The difference between usleep(3) and pth_usleep(3) is that that pth_usleep(3) suspends only the execution of the current thread and not the whole process. This is a variant of the POSIX sleep(3) function. It suspends the current threads execution until sec seconds elapsed. The thread is guarrantied to not awakened before this time, but because of the non-preemptive scheduling nature of Pth, it can be awakened later, of course. The difference between sleep(3) and pth_sleep(3) is that that pth_sleep(3) suspends only the execution of the current thread and not the whole process. This is a variant of the POSIX waitpid(2) function. It suspends the current threads execution until status information is available for a terminated child process pid. The difference between waitpid(2) and pth_waitpid(3) is that that pth_waitpid(3) suspends only the execution of the current thread and not the whole process. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see waitpid(2). This is the Pth thread-related equivalent of POSIX sigprocmask(2) respectively pthread_sigmask(3). The arguments how, set and oset directly relate to sigprocmask(2), because Pth internally just uses sigprocmask(2) here. So alternatively you can also directly call sigprocmask(2), but for consistency reasons you should use this function pth_sigmask(3). This is a variant of the POSIX.1c sigwait(3) function. It suspends the current threads execution until a signal in set occurred and stores the signal number in sig. The important point is that the signal is not delivered to a signal handler. Instead it's catched by the scheduler only in order to awake the pth_sigwait() call. The trick and noticeable point here is that this way you get an asynchronous aware application that is written completely synchronously. When you think about the problem of asynchronous safe functions you should recognize that this is a great benefit. This is a variant of the 4.2BSD connect(2) function. It establishes a connection on a socket s to target specified in addr and addrlen. The difference between connect(2) and pth_connect(3) is that that pth_connect(3) suspends only the execution of the current thread and not the whole process. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see connect(2). This is a variant of the 4.2BSD accept(2) function. It accepts a connection on a socket by extracting the first connection request on the queue of pending connections, creating a new socket with the same properties of s and allocates a new file descriptor for the socket (which is returned). The difference between accept(2) and pth_accept(3) is that that pth_accept(3) suspends only the execution of the current thread and not the whole process. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see accept(2). This is a variant of the 4.2BSD select(2) function. It examines the I/O descriptor sets whose addresses are passed in rfds, wfds, and efds to see if some of their descriptors are ready for reading, are ready for writing, or have an exceptional condition pending, respectively. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see select(2). This is a variant of the SysV poll(2) function. It examines the I/O descriptors which are passed in the array fds to see if some of them are ready for reading, are ready for writing, or have an exceptional condition pending, respectively. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see poll(2). This is a variant of the POSIX read(2) function. It reads up to nbytes bytes into buf from filedescriptor fd. The difference between read(2) and pth_read(2) is that that pth_read(2) suspends execution of the current thread until the filedescriptor is ready for reading. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see read(2). This is a variant of the POSIX readv(2) function. It reads data from filedescriptor fd into the first iovcnt rows of the iov vector. The difference between readv(2) and pth_readv(2) is that that pth_readv(2) suspends execution of the current thread until the filedescriptor is ready for reading. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see readv(2). This is a variant of the POSIX write(2) function. It writes nbytes bytes from buf to filedescriptor fd. The difference between write(2) and pth_write(2) is that that pth_write(2) suspends execution of the current thread until the filedescriptor is ready for writing. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see write(2). This is a variant of the POSIX writev(2) function. It writes data to filedescriptor fd from the first iovcnt rows of the iov vector. The difference between writev(2) and pth_writev(2) is that that pth_writev(2) suspends execution of the current thread until the filedescriptor is ready for reading. For more details about the arguments and return code semantics see writev(2). This is a variant of the POSIX pread(3) function. It performs the same action as a regular read(2), except that it reads from a given position in the file without changing the file pointer. The first three arguments are the same as for pth_read(3) with the addition of a fourth argument offset for the desired position inside the file. This is a variant of the POSIX pwrite(3) function. It performs the same action as a regular write(2), except that it writes to a given position in the file without changing the file pointer. The first three arguments are the same as for pth_write(3) with the addition of a fourth argument offset for the desired position inside the file. The following example is a useless server which does nothing more than listening on a specified TCP port and displaying the current time to the socket when a connection was established. For each incoming connection a thread is spawned. The example contains no error checking and is only intended to show you the look and feel of Pth. #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <errno.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/socket.h> #include <netinet/in.h> #include <arpa/inet.h> #include <signal.h> #include <netdb.h> #include <unistd.h> #include "pth.h" static void *handler(void *_arg) { int fd = (int)_arg; time_t now; char *ct; now = time(NULL); ct = ctime(&now); pth_write(fd, ct, strlen(ct)); close(fd); return NULL; } static void *ticker(void *_arg) { time_t now; char *ct; float load; for (;;) { pth_sleep(5); now = time(NULL); ct = ctime(&now); ct[strlen(ct)-1] = '\0'; pth_ctrl(PTH_CTRL_GETAVLOAD, &load); printf("ticker: time: %s, average load: %.2f\n", ct, load); } } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { pth_attr_t attr; struct sockaddr_in sar; struct protoent *pe; struct sockaddr_in peer_addr; int peer_len; int sa, sw; int port; pth_init(); port = atoi(argv[1]); signal(SIGPIPE, SIG_IGN); attr = pth_attr_new(); pth_attr_set(attr, PTH_ATTR_NAME, "ticker"); pth_attr_set(attr, PTH_ATTR_STACK_SIZE, 32*1024); pth_attr_set(attr, PTH_ATTR_JOINABLE, FALSE); pth_spawn(attr, ticker, NULL); pe = getprotobyname("tcp"); sa = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, pe->p_proto); sar.sin_family = AF_INET; sar.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; sar.sin_port = htons(port); bind(sa, (struct sockaddr *)&sar, sizeof(struct sockaddr_in)); listen(sa, 10); pth_attr_set(attr, PTH_ATTR_NAME, "handler"); for (;;) { peer_len = sizeof(peer_addr); sw = pth_accept(sa, (struct sockaddr *)&peer_addr, &peer_len); pth_spawn(attr, handler, (void *)sw); } } Pth per default uses an explicit API, including the system calls. For instance you've to explicitly use pth_read(3) when you need a thread-aware read(3) and cannot expect that by just calling read(3) only the current thread is blocked. Instead with the standard read(3) call the whole process will be blocked. But because for some applications (mainly those consisting of lots of third-party stuff) this can be inconvinient. Here it's required that a call to read(3) ``magically'' means pth_read(3). The problem here is that such magic Pth cannot provide per default because it's not really portable. Nevertheless Pth provides a two step approach to solve this problem:

Soft System Call Mapping
This variant is available on all platforms and can always be enabled by building Pth with --enable-syscall-soft. This then triggers some #define's in the pth.h header which map for instance read(3) to pth_read(3), etc. Currently the following functions are mapped: fork(2), sleep(3), sigwait(3), waitpid(2), select(2), poll(2), connect(2), accept(2), read(2), write(2). The drawback of this approach is just that really all source files of the application where these function calls occur have to include pth.h, of course. And this also means that this way existing libraries, including the vendor's stdio usually will still block the whole process.

Hard System Call Mapping
This variant is available only on those platforms where the syscall(2) function exists and there it can be enabled by building Pth with --enable-syscall-hard. This then builds wrapper functions (for instances read(3)) into the Pth library which internally call the real Pth replacement functions (pth_read(3)). Currently the following functions are mapped: fork(2), sleep(3), waitpid(2), select(2), poll(2), connect(2), accept(2), read(2), write(2). The drawback of this approach is that it depends on syscall(2) and that prototype conflicts can occur while building the wrapper functions due to different function signatures in the vendor headers. But the advantage of this mapping variant is that the source files of the application where these function calls occur have not to include pth.h and that existing libraries, including the vendor's stdio, magically become thread-aware. Pth is very portable because it has only one part which perhaps has to be ported to new platforms (the machine context initialization). But it is written in a way which works on mostly all Unix platforms which support sigstack(2) or sigaltstack(2) [see pth_mctx.c for details]. Any other code is straight-forward POSIX and ANSI C based. The context switching is done via POSIX [sig]setjmp(3) and [sig]longjmp(3). Here all CPU registers, the program counter and the stack pointer are switched. Additionally the Pth dispatcher switches also the global Unix errno variable [see pth_mctx.c for details] and the signal mask (either implicitly via sigsetjmp(3) or in an emulated way via explicit setprocmask(2) calls). The Pth event manager is mainly select(2) and gettimeofday(2) based, i.e., the current time is fetched via gettimeofday(2) once per context switch for calculations and both the time and all I/O events are implemented via a single select(2) call [see pth_sched.c for details]. The thread control block management is done via priority queues without any additional data structure overhead. For this the queue linkage attributes are part of the thread control blocks and the queues are actually implemented as rings with a selected element as the entry point [see pth_tcb.h and pth_pqueue.c for details]. Most time critical sections (especially the dispatcher and event manager) are speeded up by inlined functions (implemented as ANSI C pre-processor macros). Additionally any debugging code is completely removed from the source when not built with -DPTH_DEBUG (see Autoconf --enable-debug option), i.e., not only stub functions remain [see pth_debug.h for details]. Pth (intentionally) provides no replacements for thread-safe functions (like strtok(3) which uses a static internal buffer) or synchronous system functions (like gethostbyname(3) which doesn't provide an asynchronous mode where it doesn't block). When you want to use those functions in your server application together with threads you've to either link the application against special third-party libraries (or for thread-safe/reentrant functions possibly against an existing libc_r of the platform vendor). For an asynchronous DNS resolver library use either the libresolv from BIND 8 ( see ftp://ftp.isc.org/isc/bind/ ) or the forthcoming GNU adns package from Ian Jackson ( see http://www.gnu.org/software/adns/adns.html ). The Pth library was designed and implemented between February and July 1999 by Ralf S. Engelschall after evaluating various (mostly preemptive) thread libraries and intensive discussions with Peter Simons, Martin Kraemer, Lars Eilebrecht and Ralph Babel related to an experimental (matrix based) non-preemptive C++ scheduler class written by Peter Simons. Pth was then implemented in order to combine the non-preemptive approach of multithreading (providing better portability and performance) with an API similar to the one found in POSIX thread libraries (providing easy programming). So the essential idea for the non-preemptive approach was taken over from Peter Simons scheduler. The priority based scheduling algorithm was contributed by Martin Kraemer. Some code inspiration also came from an old threading library (rsthreads) written by Robert S. Thau for an ancient internal test version of Apache. The concept and API of message ports was borrowed from AmigaOS' Exec. The concept and idea for the flexible event mechanism came from Paul Vixie's eventlib (part of BIND8). If you think you have found a bug in Pth, you should send a report as complete as possible to bug-pth@gnu.org. If you can, please try to fix the problem and include a patch, made with ``diff -u3'', in your report. Always at least include a reasonable amount of description in your report to allow the author to reproduce the bug. For further support you additionally can subscribe yourself to the pth-users@gnu.org mailing list by sending a mail to pth-users-request@gnu.org with ``subscribe pth-users'' in the body. Then you can discuss your issues with other Pth users by sending messages to pth-users@gnu.org.

Related Web Locations
``comp.programming.threads Newsgroup Archive'', http://www.deja.com/topics_if.xp? search=topic&group=comp.programming.threads ``comp.programming.threads Frequently Asked Questions (F.A.Q.)'', http://www.lambdacs.com/newsgroup/FAQ.html ``Multithreading - Definitions and Guidelines'', Numeric Quest Inc 1998; http://www.numeric-quest.com/lang/multi-frame.html ``The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2 - Threads'', The Open Group 1997; http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs /007908799/xsh/threads.html SMI Thread Resources, Sun Microsystems Inc; http://www.sun.com/workshop/threads/ Bibliography on threads and multithreading, Torsten Amundsen; http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/Os/threads.html

Related Books
B. Nichols, D. Buttlar, J.P. Farrel: ``Pthreads Programming - A POSIX Standard for Better Multiprocessing'', O'Reilly 1996; ISBN 1-56592-115-1 B. Lewis, D. J. Berg: ``Threads Primer - A Guide To Multithreaded Programming'', Prentice Hall 1996; ISBN 0-13-443698-9 S. J. Norton, M. D. Dipasquale: ``Thread Time - The Multithreaded Programming Guide'', Prentice Hall 1997; ISBN 0-13-190067-6 D. R. Butenhof: ``Programming with POSIX Threads'', Addison Wesley 1997; ISBN 0-201-63392-2

Related Manpages
pth-config(1), pthread(3). sigstack(2), sigaltstack(2), sigaction(2), sigemptyset(2), sigaddset(2), sigprocmask(2). sigsuspend(2), sigsetjmp(3), siglongjmp(3), setjmp(3), longjmp(3), select(2), gettimeofday(2). Ralf S. Engelschall rse@engelschall.com www.engelschall.com